T.他天体遇到夜空中很快飞，在一个不寻常的图案移动。基娅拉明加莱利和她的朋友看到​​它在安大略省的农村，他们经常夜间观察哨的字段。解释很明确：外国人。她的下一个步骤是也很清楚，这是冲刺家里向她解释她的父母刚危险的境地。她一直陷入在外星人的太空船发呆。

这是童年的经历，就像这一个为天文学的终身热爱奠定了基础。今天Mingarelli仍然仰望天空，但大多数远远越来越远。她的专业正在寻找重力波，特别是那些在纳米赫尔兹频率范围内（Ligo最近检测的波浪较高频率占多倍的波浪）。在她们作为CALTECH的一家人中的能力，合作促进了利加乐队的努力，她能够通过对最近实验突破的兴奋和含义来指导我们。

但是，通过她与科学外展的经验，与年轻女性合作，并成为男性主导地区的一个女人，她也在揭示她领域的不断发展的文化。

鹦鹉螺坐在Caltech校园里的Mingarelli下来。

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您对引力波的解焦检测是什么？

天啊！我非常高兴。你知道，这几乎就像是好得是真实的，因为我们总是说5到10年，对不对？我们总是说，我们要检测5到10年的东西，并有结束了，只是说，“哦，我们终于发现一些东西，”是惊人的！这是一种很好的感觉。我认为，这将打开天文学的一个全新分支，在引力波只是看起来。T.o be someone who’s been in the field for five or six years already and working on a different experiment, you kind of feel like a pioneer in your own experiment, and that maybe in 10 years when we detect gravitational waves with pulsar timing arrays that we’ll have the same kind of party and fanfare. I think that the reaction, especially from the public, has been really overwhelming; people are so interested in this result and so interested in this new way of thinking about space and time and gravity and these ripples. So I was ecstatic! I couldn’t believe it.

你怎么不能告诉所有朋友，你刚刚发现支持爱因斯坦的重力论的证据？

这些黑洞的群体大约是阳光质量真的令人惊讶的群众。自一天以来，为LIGO实验做出预期率的人总是说我们首先检测中子星 - 中子星结束，因为我们希望有更多这些，因此我们应该先看到一个二元中子星。我们看到一个二元黑洞的事实首先真的吹了我的想法！然后他们再次如此大量的事实就像，那样，Phew！这是坚果！这是关于这种发现的美妙事物之一，即它从来没有真正的目标。现实甚至比你想到的更酷，我希望Pulsar时序阵列发生同样的事情。

其他卡特克科学家如何对邻居检测做出反应？

我可以告诉你艾伦韦恩斯坦的反应，他是在Caltech的教授，他们在Ligo实验上工作。他说，当他们打电话时，他们呼吁他们一切都不是，因为他们无法相信它是真实的。几十年来，他们一直在寻找引力波浪。He said at first he thought that it was a blind injection, that someone had put in a signal and they didn’t know about it and so they thought that they were going to have to go through this whole rigmarole again, to find out that at the end of the day it was a hardware injection. Then they thought that maybe it was double blind because no one seemed to know what was going on. Whoever did the injection didn’t tell anyone, and this is going to be a big secret, and then eventually it’s not going to be a real signal. But then everyone swore that they hadn’t done any injections, and so they were starting to think, “oh my gosh, maybe this is real!” And then Alan thought maybe it was a triple blind experiment, and that just means it’s a malicious hacker who somehow managed to erase all of their steps and get the perfect gravitational wave signal in the mirror, and then will announce that they’ve somehow engineered this in a few months, and embarrass the collaboration. But he also claims that a binary black hole merger is much more likely than someone with that level of computer hacking power who is interested in hacking LIGO.

怎么在LIGO结果早泄露？

我认为信息泄露有很多不同的方式。其中一种方法显然是，有人打印了一份论文的草稿，并把它留在打印机上，人们经过这里，用手机拍下照片，然后发邮件给他们的朋友!如果发生了这种事，你知道吗?讨论组，有时人们认为它们是封闭的，但它们是公开的，你可以给一个列表发送电子邮件，你认为这是安全的，但有一些人不是协作的一部分，但他们可以参与其中。事故和泄漏有很多不同的发生方式。而且，这太令人兴奋了!你怎么能不告诉你所有的朋友，你刚刚找到了支持爱因斯坦引力理论的证据呢?花了100年才发现!

我认为这是一件事，即NSF，我看到一个估计声称他们将超过10亿美元的资助成为利奥。这是一个非常昂贵的实验，你有这个目标是检测引力波。如果你实际上这样做，经过几十年的尝试，当然人们会打电话说，哦，我的天哪，猜猜刚刚发生了什么？So you know, you can ask people to not tell anyone, but at the end of the day I think that people who do this kind of work are really excited about their work and it’s really hard for them to not call their mom or their spouses and tell them that this discovery of fundamental importance has just happened, and this is most likely going to win a Nobel Prize, and you’ve been a part of that work. Of course you want to tell everyone, right? So I think it was really difficult for people to be silent about it. So yes, of course there are a few leaks.

引力波也能拉伸和压缩时间。为什么我们没有听说过LIGO探测的这方面呢?

首先要考虑的是广义相对论是一种时空理论。所以在时空理论中，时空是一个量。我们需要建立参考系来描述空间和时间，因此我们需要选择一个坐标系。一旦我们建立这个我们有很多选择,如何描述这些不同的坐标系统,我们通常选择一个坐标系,真的很容易和简单的,在这个坐标系统,没有时间组件,但是这并不意味着你不能有一个;它只是意味着我们选择一个不存在的但你可以做一个旋转最终得到一个时间分量。这之所以重要是因为如果我们选择一个包含时间膨胀的描述，它就很难解释，可能也不是很直观。为了选择一个真正清晰的理论，我们要选择一个引力波是横向的参考系，我的意思是，如果引力波从我的前额出来并且从这个方向来，那么它就会向这个方向拉伸和挤压时空，对吧?所以它像这样出来，像这样拉伸和挤压，或者像这样。这是引力波的两种不同的正极化和交叉极化。所以存在-或者你可以认为存在-时间膨胀，在这种意义上你可以用数学方法来描述它，但这不是直观的。

所以选择适当的坐标系这描述并不容易,很多人有这个——让这个参考系的引力波横向,然后让群众在这个自由落体参考系,然后作用于重力波效应,观察这个空间扭曲是一种直观的思考方式。但你也可以把激光想象成一种时间膨胀效应，这是由这些镜子被拉伸和挤压造成的。从这个意义上说，你可以把这个实验看作是一种时间膨胀效应信号被延迟了一定的时间。或者你可以把这个实验想象成它在空间中被拉伸和挤压，不得不移动，然后在光线重新组合时接收到信号。

有引力波的不变的背景？

引力波与物质非常弱，因此，我们现在实际上沐浴在重力的背景之后。如果我们想要具体并举个例子，让我们考虑引力波的背景：超级分类黑洞二元合并。因此，与另一个星系合并的每个星系都有中央超大的黑洞与其他超大的黑洞合并，以制作一个新的黑洞。这一切都在发生，但数十亿年。那么偶尔是什么，你不仅可以从各个系统中拥有这些单一的引力源，但你有一个全背景的引力波，就像一个波涛汹涌的海洋，右边？所以你的引力波从这里脱离，然后从这里脱离，然后他们干扰，你得到这种波涛汹涌的海浪的引力波。

我对科学的热爱始于我很小的时候;想想星星，想想宇宙。

现在，我们有什么这种信号会是什么样子，尤其是在脉冲星计时阵一个非常好的主意。我们知道频率依赖性看起来我们的信号一样，我们有粗略估计，以什么那种背景的幅度会。这些估计来自不同星系合并方案。因此，更多的星系是合并，较高的背景将是因为你有更多的超大质量黑洞的星系更多并购。这也取决于中央的超大质量黑洞的质量。所以，你将有一个较强的背景下，如果你有胖的黑洞。Now, what we can do, even with no detection of the gravitational wave background, is that we can set upper limits, and all that means is that if the background were at this level it would’ve detected it, and therefore because we haven’t detected it, we can rule out all these theories that claim that we have 10 billion solar mass black holes in the centers of each galaxy, because it’s obvious that we don’t—because if we did, they would’ve made a signal that we could’ve detected. But we haven’t detected it and therefore this theory is no good. So we can keep on ruling out theories until we actually make a detection. And therefore, upper limits can also tell us interesting things about the universe from what we don’t see.

早期宇宙有引力波背景吗？

事实上，有在引力场量子涨落在早期宇宙中，使原始的引力波，而这也未尝真的很有趣。发生了什么事是，这些量子涨落，引力场的这些波动，由原始的引力波，然后是在通货膨胀时期炸毁。现在我们来看看这些原始的引力波，这是一种类似于宇宙微波背景辐射。因此，这是一个实验，我们可以使用范围从LIGO，我们可以使用来自脉冲星计时阵实验从宇宙微波背景实验的限制，并限制把对通胀的不同理论的约束，因为他们中的一些预测，这些重力的科学waves would be larger and thus we’d be able to see them today. But we don’t see them today, so again we can put a kind of limit on that and say, well these theories of inflation or these other theories are no good because it predicted a number that we’ve now seen, but we haven’t seen the signal, and therefore we can rule out this theory or say that our evidence does not support this theory. So primordial gravitational waves are really interesting and it’s also an active area of research that I’m participating in right now.

引力波的频率是多少?

引力波的频谱是巨大的，我们预计是在许多不同的引力波的频率，以非常低的频率，10^-16如果这对任何人来说都有意义的话，它的频率是十亿分之几千万赫兹，一直到LIGO源，频率在1000赫兹左右。千赫兹波段很有趣，实际上是几十赫兹到千赫兹，因为这个范围是可以听到的如果你能听到，这就是为什么人们在描述LIGO信号时，会发出这些跳跃的噪音，因为它会发出，喔喔喔!这是因为如果时间是这个方向频率是这个方向，随着时间的推移频率会增加;因此你得到了这个独特的啁啾信号。

引力波，我的工作是在nanohertz频段，所以这是一个赫兹的十亿分之一。它们比低声，他们不啁啾，因为他们在他们的一生中到底是不是。因此，这啁啾声中合并的最后阶段到来时，在你得到这个频率大幅增加。但是，如果你在nanohertz水平，这是当你有，例如两个超大质量黑洞，它们是星系的中心，并在星系合并时，它们的超大质量黑洞合并。我们听到这些与引力波时，他们在nanohertz频率制度。它不会有鸣叫声;这将是更稳定的嗡嗡声。

所以我们在引力波频谱的毫赫兹频率部分看到的信号和LIGO看到的是有区别的。所以LIGO会看到来源几倍太阳质量的,也许10倍或更多太阳的质量,以及中子星或其他inspiraling紧凑的对象的他们的生活,而nanohertz重力波实验看到更大质量的物体,如超大质量黑洞,在最初的灵感阶段，它们的质量是太阳的一百万到十亿倍;所以你不会在纳赫兹频段听到最后的啁啾声，但在LIGO中可以听到。

只有少数人赢得诺贝尔奖的重力波浪奖吗？

诺贝尔委员会拥有这条规则，奖励应授予对其领域作出重大贡献的个人。Now, I think that maybe this will have to be revised eventually because we have huge experiments, like there’s the Large Hadron Collider, and the discovery of the Higgs boson, and the fact that the LHC or even CERN, none of those experiments got a Nobel Prize and maybe they should have. It’s also strange that the Nobel Prize for Peace went to the European Union, which is clearly not an individual, and so maybe they can take that precedent and apply it to physics. But these are all my opinions and speculations; I don’t have any insider knowledge on the thoughts of the Nobel Committee. But I think that these projects, if they don’t win a Nobel Prize, should also be awarded some kind of status. There should be some sort of special recognition by the Committee, either funding in perpetuity or something of equivalent importance, because it took over 1,000 scientists to detect those gravitational waves with LIGO. Even I worked on it when I was a graduate student. Anyone who studies gravitational waves will eventually come across LIGO and be a member of the LIGO Scientific Collaboration. So it’s difficult to know how to reward the experiments and the thousands of people who have input into the experiments, over the few people who had the vision early on to really push for these kinds of experiments.

你对科学的兴趣是怎么开始的?

当我还是个孩子的时候，我真的很喜欢在外面玩，特别是在黄昏时。当你看到第一个明星出来的时候，我以为真的很漂亮。我真的很喜欢明星凝视。即使我来自渥太华，我就是从渥太华的郊区。有一个名为洛塔基奥的小镇，那真是我被提出的地方;他们真的很黑暗。

当我在那里移动时，人口就在10,000岁以下。当我们的第一个地铁餐厅打开时，我们认为将我们放在地图上！我们终于获得了一个Tim Hortons [和]我们在前景中高兴了！所以这是一个非常小的小镇，没有大量的光明污染，晚上我会抬头看星星。我总是想知道那里有什么，如果我能为我们对那里的知识做出贡献。谁是我假装我能做到这样的事情？但我总是非常感兴趣，我认为这真的是我的力量，我从未放弃过。一旦我发现了黑洞，你实际上可以赚钱研究黑洞 - 这可能是一个职业道路 - 我真的想到了，“好吧，你为什么要做任何事情？就像这显然是我们都应该做的事情！大家怎么没有这样做？“

所以，是的，我的爱情与科学，我猜，开始时，我真的很年轻，只是想着星星和思考宇宙。我的父亲，谁是数学家，问我什么，我想是的，我说，好，我真的很喜欢天文，但我不想星星只是看看。我宁愿做一些与它一个更位数学。我喜欢挑战自己。我说，有没有这样的事情天体物理学？我想他都快哭了！他很兴奋！他当时想，“是的，是的，有！哦，我的女儿将是一个天体物理学家！”我一直都迷恋的黑洞，我还是做这一天。

为什么公众由黑洞如此着迷？

有趣的是它们的二元性既简单又复杂。它们真的很简单。你可以用质量和自旋来描述它们，对吧?但在事件视界之外是什么呢?奇点到底是什么样的?是无限曲率的这个点吗?这是一种夸克汤吗?它看起来像什么?我们对光在接近奇点时的行为有一些想法，但实际上知道它是什么样子的，以及事件视界内发生的所有事情……我的意思是，当物质接近奇点，被移动，被撕裂，释放出x射线，伽马射线和各种电离辐射，这些辐射会马上杀死我们。 But what does all of this look like?

我试着把它想象成一个喷泉，有光出来，然后在它接近事件视界时落回它自己。但也可能有光在运动，在各种各样奇怪奇妙的轨道上，在中心有奇点。如果黑洞在旋转，这实际上应该是一个环奇点而不是一个点。有一些理论是关于我们如何进入不同的现实，平行的宇宙，如果我们穿过这些环形奇点。但这是非常投机的，因为当然，如果你看了这背后的数学，它实际上是奇点之后发生的宇宙的副本，但这并不意味着它是另一个宇宙的副本或进入另一个宇宙的途径。奇点周围的时空也变得非常不稳定。所以这可能只是数学上的侥幸，但也可能是别的原因。

这就是这么令人着迷。All of these different theories of gravity or of black holes or five-dimensional—all of these things have such an ability to tickle your curiosity and to think of amazing things that you don’t think of when you’re going to the grocery store or if you’re typing some manuscript on your computer. A lot of this stuff really requires a lot of imagination, and that’s what’s so fun about it. Again, black holes, they look like they’re possibly the simplest objects we could ever describe because all you can see is the event horizon, right? And if you’re lucky, there might be a companion that is donating mass to the system, and then you can see X-rays that are coming off of an accretion disk around the black hole because X-rays are kind of light—you can see these with space-based detectors. I mean they’re just so cool, right? And I think that a lot of people may share that fascination, that they are these seemingly simple objects that are really complicated.

这部电影＃星际描绘黑洞是否正确？

那部电影有一些黑洞的最佳场景。我的意思是，Gargantua的可视化绝对令人惊叹。这实际上是真实的。他们可视化Gargantua的方式是通过服用爱因斯坦的野外方程式，并实际上解决超级计算机的方式，使我们的科学家们在做出非常困难的时刻。那是因为我们没有足够的钱购买所有这些超级计算机的时间，但这部电影做了！因此，他们可以运行所有这些模拟并生成几乎是一种数据的笨蛋，然后我们将凑合甘蓝的可视化。但Kip告诉我们，如果它看起来不太好，那将被抛出并被完全丢弃。这件美丽的科学，我们无法承受自己的，如果它看起来不太好，它就在窗外！所以我真的很高兴看起来很好，它还让我们这么有趣的可视化，你有次要戒指，对吗？所以你在黑洞周围有一个光环，然后你有吸收磁盘; but actually the halo is just the lensed effect of the accretion disk behind it. This is something that we’ve never seen before, and it makes sense if you think about it, but beforehand no one had ever really thought that that’s what it would look like because we’re all used to looking at these things in two dimensions. We draw this flat fabric of spacetime and we draw this little well and sometimes we make this two-dimensional by shifting it and you can see that it’s this big kind of dip. But imagining this in three dimensions or seeing it and seeing what the effect on light is, is stunning. And that movie is really responsible for that effect, which is beautiful.

什么一直是你作为一个女人在一个男性主导的领域工作经验吗？

这是一个很难回答的问题，因为没有正确或错误的答案，也没有一个答案能让我受欢迎!事实是，这是非常困难的，困难的原因有很多。这很困难，因为人们对科学家的外貌有先入之见，而且人们有隐性的性别偏见，尤其是对科学家。你可以做一个哈佛的内隐偏见测试，然后像我一样发现，你对待男性科学家更认真。即使是我做的!我是一名女科学家!每个人都有这种偏见。承认它的存在是摆脱它的一种方法;这是为了提醒你自己，你确实有这种偏见当你评估别人的科学研究时，你应该一直把这种偏见牢记在心。我真的客观地看待这个问题吗? Are things tainting this? How can I try to mitigate this kind of effect?

已经表明科学，当我们有很多多样性时，这么好。

这也是很难在一个领域，甚至在所有的学术界，基本上是根据书信写作活动。您的博士做的工作上司和你的博士上司写你的参考信。如果你的博士supervisor has bullied you or harassed you in any way, you can’t ask them for a letter because chances are you don’t like them very much and they don’t like you, after all is said and done, especially if you’ve reported them; so then what do you do? You don’t have anyone who has your back and you don’t have anyone who can write you letters to go to the next rung on the academic ladder. That kind of power is almost absolute in the world of academia. So some people just put up with it. Some people just put up with male colleagues leering at them at conference dinners or people getting drunk and putting their hand on your bum, or sometimes a lot more awful things happen. You can have professors, again in these situations, putting their hands up your skirt, and there’s not a lot that you can do. You can complain, but chances are they’re just going to get a slap on the wrist. It makes you wonder if anyone takes your science seriously at all, because you’re a woman, and because you think that people want to talk to you about your science, but sometimes they just want to talk to you to get you drunk or to make out with you or to have sex with you.

So this is one thing that I’ve found the most difficult in my career—is to try to have really amazing scientific conversations with colleagues without having at the back of my mind that they want something else, because all these things have happened to me before where there [have] been ulterior motives. So it’s a really difficult thing to be a minority in the field, and at least I have one advantage—that I’m white! If I were a person of color, chances are I wouldn’t be here at all, because female people of color are some of the most disadvantaged in science. I try to keep my biases in check and I try to encourage other women and support them and also try to encourage people of color and underrepresented minorities to join science. It’s been shown that science, when we have a lot of diversity, is just so much better. People bring in different ideas, you’re more productive, you have better science. But the hard reality is that people like what they know, and they like having clubs of people who are all familiar to each other and who are all friends. That’s really difficult to change, and I think change will come really slowly, unfortunately.

在过去的几个月里，很多媒体都在报道加州大学伯克利分校的Geoff Marcy，还有这里的Christian Ott，他的办公室就在大厅里，这些都是极端的例子。但有一点并不总是令人赞赏，那就是这类人通常都有欺凌问题。这都是权力游戏。不管你是女人还是不会反抗他们的人，他们都知道，因为你的学术前途掌握在他们手中，他们基本上可以做任何他们想做的事。他们拥有终身教职的宝贵地位，这意味着你永远不会被解雇。所以你真的很难做任何事去报告这些人。作为一名女性，你会处于特别不利的地位，这是我一直在努力应对的问题，我也一直在努力支持其他女性应对这一问题。我认为以一种开放和诚实的方式谈论它是很重要的，就像我现在所做的，这真的很困难，因为总有反对者会说，哦，你知道，她喝醉了，她想要它，或者她是……不管怎样，有很多人在这个案件中指责受害者。但根据我和我支持过的所有同事和研究生的经验，在不同的此类骚扰案例中，大多数都是受害者因为各种原因而自责，我试图说服他们，不，他们不应该被骚扰。 Like you can wear whatever you want and people should still respect you as a scientist. So I hope that things get better and I hope that with these really high profile cases, which have been in the media, people will come to realize that this is a real problem and it’s a real issue and people like myself and my colleagues deal with it every single day. I really hope that there’s light at the end of that tunnel and that that comes really soon.

你从谈话对科学感兴趣的年轻妇女学到了什么？

这取决于他们是否在女孩的学校，或者他们在一个混合的学校。在我的经验中，所有女孩的学校的女孩们，他们从未发生过他们不能成为科学家或领导者。他们似乎都幸福地问了问题，他们都表现出兴趣。显然不是每个人都很感兴趣，但你有合适的比例，他们真的很感兴趣，有些人有点兴趣，有些人只是不关心 - 这是正常的。However, I’ve noticed that in mixed schools if we’re doing a demonstration, the boys always come to the front and the girls fall to the back and are really shy to raise their hand and ask a question, whereas the boys feel like it’s they’re entitled to be there; it’s their job to be at the front, to show that they’re asking awesome questions, even if their questions are ridiculous. They still want to be seen as being the leaders of the pack and being at the front and asking questions and participating. So there’s this really interesting separation when you have just girls who are working together and if you have mixed classes.

希望在未来的那个部门将会消失，你不需要分开教育女孩，以便这些偏见从一个非常年轻的时代变得明显，因为当他们真的年轻时，那么没有区别。When they’re really young, I have like 4-year-olds coming up to some Lycra universe demonstration where you have a piece of Lycra and you put a heavy ball in the middle of this, it stretches out the fabric of spacetime, and everyone wants to play with the golf balls that go in orbit around the sun; and girls and boys both do this. But just a little bit older and they already start to become shyer, they are embarrassed to ask questions, they don’t want to show off, they feel easily embarrassed. Boys don’t seem to suffer the same thing. So I hope that in the future one of the ways that we can measure this improvement is by having young children always being at the same level of interest. Of course not everyone is going to be interested in black holes the way that I was. But maybe they’ll find something else which is interesting to them and they’ll be the version of me for geology or for language studies or for whatever it is that they want to pursue.

如果你不是科学家，你会是什么?

哦，我的上帝，你在对我做什么？好的，如果我不是一个科学家，我可能是一个语言学家。我说出四种语言，其中三种语言流利，我从来没有追求这一点，因为它总是很容易，我认为这是某种方式作弊。我就像，如果我这样做，那很容易，那么如果我真的挑战自己，如果我真的挑战自己，我该怎么办？所以我在意大利，意大利做了大师学位，并在西班牙度过了一些时间，也学到了西班牙人，我在渥太华长大，我去了法国学校。所以英语，法语和意大利语非常好，西班牙语是好的，你通常可以让一些意大利语把一些意大利语放入西班牙语里，以便让自己理解。但语言学有很多相同的逻辑规则和你在科学中的结构，特别是当你回到拉丁语时。所以我发现那种真的很有趣，所以我认为我可以申请同样的好奇心和对物品分析的好奇心，并寻找语言学等东西。